Retirement can boost mental health, but not for everyone. A new study shows that income, gender, and job type influence whose well-being flourishes and who struggles once the 9-to-5 workdays are ended.
Retirement generally signifies the end of full-time work and a transition to a more leisurely life. For many, it represents new opportunities, with time available to travel, start new hobbies, and spend time with family and friends – to take a well-earned break from the daily grind.
However, a new study by the University of Edinburgh in Scotland has found that the mental health benefits of retirement aren’t guaranteed to everyone who retires. There are factors that negatively influence post-retirement well-being.
“This study identified distinct mental health trajectories across different income groups,” said the study’s lead and corresponding author, Xuefei Li, from the University’s Department of Psychology. “We can assume that people’s immediate health changes at the year they retire and longer-term health changes are different. Understanding these phases sheds light on the adjustment processes that people undergo when faced with the internal and external challenges.”
The researchers analyzed 17 years of data from the Dutch Longitudinal Internet Studies for the Social Sciences (LISS), which follows households over time. A total of 1,538 participants who retired during the study window and had mental health, income, and job demand data available were included.
Mental health was measured with a five-item scale (MHI-5), capturing anxiety, depression, and well-being. Monthly income was grouped into three categories: low (< €1,500/month or US$1,770/month), middle (€1,501–3,000 or US$1,770–3,535), and high (> €3,000 or US$3,535). Pre-retirement job demands, both physical and mental, were self-reported. Demographic data included gender, marital status, education, and retirement age. The researchers used piecewise growth curve modeling, which allowed them to look at changes in mental health before, during, and after retirement, and compare whether those changes follow one, two, or three phases.
Across all groups, retirement was linked with improved mental health, but the pattern differed by income. Those in the low-income group showed an initial improvement, but then a decline after about two-and-a-half years was seen, characterized by a “reverse U-shape” or what’s called the fading honeymoon effect. The middle-income group saw a two-phase model: improvement before retirement, followed by a more modest improvement after. In the high-income group, mental health didn’t change before and after retirement, but showed a positive spike during the retirement year. Middle- and high-income individuals with already high mental health improved less after retirement; that is, they had less “room to grow”. No such effect was found in the low-income group.
Jobs that were physically demanding before retirement had a negative effect on the mental health of those in the middle-income group – this effect persisted even after accounting for gender, education, marital status, and age. Mental job demands didn’t significantly affect outcomes. In the low-income group, women and unmarried retirees had notably poorer mental health. In the high-income group, retiring later in life was linked with slower improvements and sometimes worse mental health outcomes.
The study has limitations. The high-income group was relatively small, and the low-income group was disproportionately female, which could skew results. The study couldn’t distinguish whether participants chose to retire or were forced to, even though that likely impacts mental health. Findings are based on the Dutch pension system, which is relatively generous and collective; results may not generalize to countries with different retirement systems. Mental health was measured annually, which may miss short-term fluctuations. Finally, there were large individual variations in mental health that weren’t fully accounted for.
Regardless, the study has real-world implications across income brackets.
“All income groups showed a general improvement in mental health during the transition to retirement, yet there were multiple phases of development where mental health can take a dip,” said co-author Professor Aja Murray, PhD, a lecturer in psychology at the University of Edinburgh. “During these vulnerable times people may benefit from targeted support.”
The study highlights that while retirement generally improves mental health, the benefits aren’t equally distributed. Income, gender, marital status, and job type shape who gains the most and who struggles. Recognizing these differences can help design fairer retirement and pension policies, as well as targeted mental health interventions. Future studies should test voluntary vs involuntary retirement and longer follow-up periods.
The study was published in the journal SSM – Mental Health.
Source: University of Edinburgh via EurekAlert!
